Early Life and Rise to Power
Songtsen Gampo was born in 617 AD in the Yumbulagang Fortress, located west of Tsetang on the southern bank of the Yarlung Tsangpo River in the Tibetan Plateau. He was born into a noble family; his father, Namri Songtsen, was the 31st ruler of the Tubo Dynasty. (The term “Tsenpo” was used by the people of the Tubo period to address their rulers, meaning “strong and brave man”). Songtsen Gampo was an honorary title bestowed upon him by later generations. Historical Chinese records from the Tang Dynasty refer to him by various transliterations, including Qizong Nongzan and Qisu Nongzan. In Tibetan, he is known as Tsenpo Trisongtsen or Songtsen Gampo, where “Tsenpo” signifies “king,” “Tri” means “throne” or “kingship,” “Songtsen” is his given name, and “Gampo” is a respectful title meaning “profound and unfathomable.” When he was three, his father led his army to conquer the Supi tribe and unify the Tibetan Plateau. He transformed his small kingdom in southern Tibet into the dominant power in the region. His father ensured that Songtsen Gampo received a well-rounded education and rigorous training, making him proficient in horsemanship, archery, wrestling, and swordsmanship. He was also a talented poet and lover of folk songs.
Ascending the Throne and Consolidating Power
In 629 AD, at the age of thirteen, Songtsen Gampo’s unified Tubo Kingdom was plunged into turmoil after his father was poisoned. His father’s ministers and his mother’s clan launched a rebellion, seizing control of Gongbu, Dabo and Niangbo. The western Yangtong tribe also took the opportunity to invade. The former Supi nobles north of the Yarlung Tsangpo River began their efforts to “restore their kingdom” by launching attacks on the Tubo kingdom. Despite this internal and external crisis, Songtsen Gampo bravely ascended to the throne as the 32nd Tsenpo of Tubo. Relying on newly emerged forces, he rallied a well-trained army of over 10,000 men. After three years of intense fighting, he suppressed the internal rebellion, stabilized the kingdom, and restored the unification of Tubo. In 632 AD, Songtsen Gampo led his troops across the Yarlung Tsangpo River and moved the capital from Tsetang to Lhasa. This move allowed him to escape the influence of local nobles and established a central location for political and military control, reinforcing his absolute power and the existing slave system. Lhasa’s favorable climate, stunning scenery, abundant resources, and strategic location proved to be ideal for establishing his kingdom.
Territorial Expansion and Strategic Conquests
After relocating the capital, Songtsen Gampo initiated a series of strategic plans to annex surrounding tribes and unify the entire plateau. He targeted the Supi and Yangtong kingdoms first. Supi, originally a Western Qiang tribe of 20,000 households, was located north of Tubo in areas such as Yushu, Qinghai. They were known for their agricultural and pastoral activities, especially breeding fine horses. After the death of Songtsen Gampo’s father, the Supi, along with the Yangtong, openly rebelled and attacked Tubo. Songtsen Gampo appointed the brilliant general Shang Nang, who employed clever tactics to subdue them. The Yangtong, located in western Tubo, were a large population of 80-90 thousand skilled warriors who were primarily pastoralists known for salt production, an essential commodity in Tubo. Songtsen Gampo personally led campaigns against them until they were defeated. These victories eliminated threats from the west and north and provided the Tubo army with additional soldiers, supplies, and horses, significantly strengthening the kingdom.
Songtsen Gampo then focused on the eastern regions, conquering the Dangxiang (an ancient Qiang tribe) in southeastern Qinghai and northwestern Sichuan, and the Tuyuhun (an ancient Xianbei tribe) in Gansu and Qinghai. These conquests expanded his kingdom, which extended “east to Liang, Song, Mao and Wei, and south to Brahman (India)”. He had established a powerful Tubo slave empire on the Tibetan Plateau.
Diplomacy, Marriage, and the Tang Dynasty
After consolidating his power, Songtsen Gampo sought peaceful relations with neighboring countries. He sent envoys to Nepal to establish trade relations and hire artisans for building, painting, and sculpture. He married Princess Bhrikuti, daughter of the Nepalese King Angshuvarman. He also initiated relations with the Tang Dynasty of China. The Tang dynasty, under Emperor Taizong, had reached its peak of power during the “Reign of Zhenguan.” Songtsen Gampo admired the Tang and sent envoys to Chang’an to establish relations in 634 AD. Emperor Taizong responded positively, and mutual envoys were exchanged. Songtsen Gampo, seeking to strengthen the bond, requested a royal marriage with a Tang princess but was initially denied. He resorted to military pressure, leading to the first Tubo-Tang war in 638 AD. Ultimately, conflict proved counterproductive. In 640 AD, Songtsen Gampo sent his minister, Gar Tongtsen, with lavish gifts to Emperor Taizong, once again requesting a marriage alliance. The following year, Emperor Taizong agreed to give Princess Wencheng in marriage to Songtsen Gampo, marking the beginning of a new chapter in Tibetan-Han relations.
Princess Wencheng and Cultural Exchange
In 641 AD, at the age of 25, Songtsen Gampo personally welcomed 16-year-old Princess Wencheng, who was escorted by Tang Dynasty officials. Songtsen Gampo was pleased, he wore the formal attire given to him by the Tang court and performed the son-in-law ritual. The arrival of Princess Wencheng was met with great celebration by the Tibetan people. To make her feel at home, Songtsen Gampo had a city and palace built on Marpo Ri (now Potala Hill) in Lhasa, resembling the Tang Dynasty’s architectural style. Princess Wencheng, a devout Buddhist, introduced Chinese culture to Tibet, significantly contributing to the exchange of knowledge and technologies between the two regions. Tibetan folk songs celebrate her arrival, mentioning that she brought with her various grains, livestock, and craftsmen. While the numbers are likely exaggerated, the fundamental impact is undeniable. Princess Wencheng’s arrival led to the introduction of technologies such as agriculture, textile manufacturing, architecture, paper making, and medicine from mainland China, transforming the daily lives of the Tibetans. It’s recorded that many Tibetans abandoned felt tents and fur garments in favor of silk attire and embraced Chinese customs. Conversely, Tibetan customs, such as women’s hairstyles, face painting, and horse polo, also spread to the Central Plains, enriching the cultural exchange.
Political, Military, and Economic Reforms
Following the unification of Tubo, Songtsen Gampo established a centralized government and implemented a series of significant reforms in politics, military, and economics. These reforms were aimed at strengthening his rule and promoting social stability.
Political Reforms
Recognizing the threat posed by tribalism and the lack of centralized power, Songtsen Gampo established a government modeled on the Tang Dynasty’s system. He divided senior officials into two categories, with the highest official being the Grand Minister (Da Lun). Underneath were the Junior Minister (Xiao Lun), the commander and deputy commander of the armed forces, along with other administrative, judicial, and foreign relations positions. The Grand Minister held the highest authority and made decisions on behalf of the Tsenpo. Key figures in his administration included Thonmi Sambhota, Gar Tongtsen, Zhi Saidangrugongdun, and Niang Chisangyangdun. He also established a “Ten Virtues Law,” reflecting Buddhist principles with 20 articles, that promoted family values, community, respect for elders, honesty, justice, and religious devotion. It also included clauses for the protection of private property and punishments for various crimes. To distinguish the ranks of officials, Songtsen Gampo established a system of badges of rank, made from different materials like jade, gold, silver, copper, and iron.
Military Reforms
Songtsen Gampo addressed the issue of regional military autonomy by establishing a unified army based on the Tang Dynasty’s military structure. Tubo was divided into military districts called “Ru,” each with 10,000 soldiers. These districts were further divided into sub-districts. The army was led by commanders who also served as local administrators. The different districts could be recognized by their flag colors and were under the direct command of the Tsenpo. The army was estimated to have around 400,000 troops. He established a system of rewards and punishments for soldiers and commanders, ensuring that all military activity was under direct government control. Songtsen Gampo also implemented a border patrol system, personally inspecting borders each year.
Economic Reforms
Tubo’s economy was primarily based on animal husbandry. To facilitate economic development, Songtsen Gampo implemented a land distribution system inspired by the Tang Dynasty’s equal-field system. He granted land and state resources to impoverished free citizens, encouraging them to develop agriculture and animal husbandry. He established a registry system (the “Green Book”) to record land ownership and tax obligations. This system also applied to slaves, who could cultivate land and keep a portion of their yields. The result was an increase in both agricultural and pastoral production and trade. Livestock, particularly yak, horses, and sheep, thrived, and agriculture flourished with the cultivation of crops like barley, wheat, and buckwheat. The people implemented irrigation projects, greatly enhancing agriculture in the region. Handicrafts and trade also developed, with Tibetan merchants traveling throughout Central Asia.
Cultural Achievements and Religious Influence
Songtsen Gampo’s cultural contributions are significant, particularly the creation of the Tibetan script. Before his rule, Tibet had no written language. In the early 7th century, he sent Thonmi Sambhota and other noble youths to India to study Sanskrit and other writing systems. They devised a phonetic alphabet with 30 consonants and four vowels that formed the basis of the Tibetan language. He promoted the new script and encouraged its adoption, and he commissioned the writing of grammar texts like “Sum cu pa” by Thonmi Sambhota. This led to the development and dissemination of Tibetan culture.
During his reign, Songtsen Gampo sent Tibetan students to Chang’an to learn from the advanced culture of the Tang Dynasty. These students became proficient in both Tibetan and Chinese. While Tibet was primarily practicing the indigenous religion of Bon, Buddhism had a gradual introduction into the kingdom. Both Princess Bhrikuti and Princess Wencheng were Buddhists. They introduced Buddhist statues, scriptures, and artifacts into Tibet. Temples were constructed in Lhasa, including the Jokhang and Ramoche temples. However, Buddhism did not become widespread until later.
Legacy of Songtsen Gampo
Songtsen Gampo pursued a policy of friendship with neighboring countries, especially the Tang Dynasty. He made the alliance with Tang the cornerstone of his kingdom, and that led to a long period of peace. Despite later conflicts between rulers, the friendship between the two peoples continued with frequent exchanges. From 634 to 846 AD, envoys traveled between the Tang and Tubo over 200 times, averaging almost one exchange per year. They often referred to the bond between the two peoples in diplomatic correspondence, stating, “though two countries, it’s like one family.”
In 644 AD, after an unsuccessful military campaign, the Tang Emperor Taizong was presented with a gold goose by Songtsen Gampo as a show of goodwill. In 648 AD, when Tang envoy Wang Xuanze was attacked in India, Songtsen Gampo sent troops to assist him and restore peace. When Emperor Taizong died in 649 AD, Songtsen Gampo declared his loyalty to the new emperor, Li Zhi, and offered tributes at the emperor’s funeral. Emperor Gaozong was pleased and honored Songtsen Gampo with the title of Prince of Xihai. He also commissioned a statue of him to be placed at the tomb of Emperor Taizong.
Songtsen Gampo died in 650 AD at the age of 34. His death was mourned by the Tang court and their envoys were sent to honor his passing. His legacy includes the unification of Tibet, the establishment of a powerful empire, the implementation of major reforms, the fostering of peaceful relations with neighboring countries, and the introduction of written language to Tibet. The people honored his wisdom and leadership with these words: “Our king, like Qisu Nongzan (Songtsen Gampo), is profound, and our ministers, like Dongzan (Gar Tongtsen), are wise. The king rules with justice, and the ministers bring benefit to all.”
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