The Buddhist Interpretation of Suffering
Siddhartha Gautama, who would become the Buddha, was originally a prince living a life of luxury within a palace. However, his encounters with an old man, a sick person, and a funeral procession, exposed him to the reality of human suffering. These experiences, along with seeing a monk, led him to recognize the artificiality of his palace life. Driven by the need to understand human suffering, at the age of twenty-nine, he renounced his princely life, leaving behind his wife and child to become a monk.
In Buddhist teachings, the concept of suffering is central. The Four Noble Truths, “dukkha” (suffering), “samudaya” (the origin of suffering), “nirodha” (the cessation of suffering), and “magga” (the path to the cessation of suffering), form the core of Buddhist philosophy. The first Noble Truth, the truth of suffering, is the starting point. Buddhism asserts that the fundamental truth of existence is suffering, encapsulated in the statement, “All beings experience suffering”.
The “Four Dharma Seals” act as a guide to determine whether a particular viewpoint aligns with Buddhist principles. These seals include “All compounded things are impermanent,” and “All phenomena are without inherent self.” These signify that everything is constantly changing, and there is no fixed essence to anything. The concept of “All that is conditioned is suffering” emphasizes that even seemingly positive thoughts arising from our minds are often tainted with self-interest, leading to various forms of suffering. Ultimately, Buddhists aspire to reach “Nirvana” which is a state of peace and enlightenment.
Buddhist analysis of suffering is very detailed and comprehensive, categorizing it into two, three, four, eight, and even eighteen types of suffering. For instance, the “two forms of suffering” are “internal suffering” and “external suffering.” Internal suffering includes physical pain, such as headaches, motion sickness, and illnesses, as well as mental anguish like worry, anxiety, and fear. These together comprise internal suffering. External suffering is caused by external factors such as natural disasters like storms, droughts, and harm from wild animals, or war. These two categories of suffering encompasses most of the suffering that humans can experience.
Besides the two forms of suffering, Buddhism also speaks of the “three forms of suffering,” which are “dukkha-dukkha” (the suffering of suffering), “viparinama-dukkha” (the suffering of change), and “sankhara-dukkha” (the suffering of conditioned states).
“Dukkha-dukkha” is the experience of being in a state of suffering and encountering further adversity, causing mental and physical torment, a “suffering upon suffering.” This is like the saying, “When it rains, it pours.” An example could be someone who loses their job due to an economic downturn, then loses health insurance, and subsequently falls ill.
“Viparinama-dukkha” refers to suffering caused by a change from a favorable condition to an unfavorable one. For example, there is a story of a woman whose life was going well, but one day, her husband went to work and she was at home with her two children. When she was bathing her youngest child, her older son was playing outside. She heard a loud crash. She ran outside and saw that her older son had been hit by a car. While she was processing the shock and grief, she suddenly remembered her youngest child, only to find him drowned in the tub. This type of suffering, the sudden change from a favorable condition to an undesirable one, is “viparinama-dukkha”.
Finally, the “sankhara-dukkha” is a subtle form of suffering experienced during the transition between the extremes of pleasure and pain. It is a kind of intangible suffering, often difficult to express. This is similar to feelings of a midlife crisis or the vague sadness often portrayed in novels. It is a real, if difficult to define, suffering. There is the example of young researchers in Europe who struggle with the scarcity of stable positions in scientific research. They may have done three post-doctoral studies and be over forty years old, still facing uncertainty, this is an example of “sankhara-dukkha.”
However, the most commonly referenced forms of suffering are the “Eight Sufferings” which are: birth, old age, illness, death, separation from loved ones, being in the presence of those you dislike, not getting what you want, and the suffering of the five aggregates (skandhas). As stated in the “Mahaparinirvana Sutra,” “You should know that these eight types of suffering and conditioned states are real suffering because they are oppressive.”
The Eight Sufferings
1. The Suffering of Birth
The suffering begins from the moment of conception until birth. It is said that a fetus’s existence inside the mother’s womb is like being in prison, with constant discomfort, and is referred to as “the prison of the womb.” During the birth process, the fetus goes through a narrow birth canal, often posing a risk to both the mother and the child. Moreover, when a baby is born, it is head down, feet up, and the umbilical cord is cut, all causing immense suffering. While mothers experience considerable pain, babies also experience suffering, although they cannot express it verbally. This is particularly notable in the past, when infant mortality was high, meaning this was a very common experience of suffering. Everyone who is born first experiences this type of suffering, and will experience many more during their life.
2. The Suffering of Old Age
If a person is fortunate enough to live a long life, they will experience the suffering of aging. As we get older, we become physically and mentally less capable. My mother, who passed away at ninety-one, experienced difficulty moving, struggled to remember things, and suffered from anxiety and sleeplessness. Although she did not suffer from any specific illnesses, there was an overall sense of frailty and need for assistance. There is a saying that old people can’t remember the past, but can’t remember new things either, they can’t sleep when lying down, but they doze off when sitting up. When we witness those who once took care of us now needing our help, there is a deep sense of grief.
3. The Suffering of Illness
Illness and pain often go hand in hand. Illness can also be a precursor to death. The suffering caused by illness comes not only from physical pain but also from the fear it provokes. Some courageous people may not fear death itself, but they do fear the suffering caused by illness. The suffering of illness is not limited to the patient alone, but also to their family and loved ones.
4. The Suffering of Death
Buddhism describes the suffering of death vividly, comparing it to “a live turtle being pulled out of its shell” and “a body being torn apart by sharp knives.” A person dies alone, facing an unknown future. Even if death were not painful, few would embrace it. This unwillingness to accept death is a form of suffering. These sufferings of birth, old age, sickness and death, are unavoidable experiences of life, which traps all human beings in a sea of suffering.
5. The Suffering of Separation from Loved Ones
The suffering of being separated from someone you love is a common experience. This could be children leaving home, lovers parting, or losing loved ones through death. This kind of suffering, like when you are separated from someone you love, is hard to put into words. The pain of leaving home to go to school was intense, because it meant being separated from loved ones.
6. The Suffering of Being in the Presence of Those You Dislike
This type of suffering, which is the opposite of the suffering of separation, is the suffering of being in the presence of people you dislike. There was a time that I was standing in the airport check-in line behind a heavy woman who was holding a noisy child. Usually, I don’t have any problems, but I am very sensitive to women’s perfume. The smell of perfume would cause my nose and eyes to run. The woman in front of me was very heavy, very fragrant, and holding a noisy child. I remember thinking, that I hoped I wouldn’t sit next to her on the plane, only to find out when boarding, that I was indeed seated next to her. This experience is a good example of the suffering of being near those we dislike.
7. The Suffering of Not Getting What You Want
This form of suffering is experienced when you do not get what you want, whether it is from people, things, children, or marriage. However, just the act of asking for something is in itself a difficult and bitter experience. Buddhist philosophy extends this idea, and includes the suffering that comes from getting what you want: like a son who is unfilial, or a wife who is immoral.
8. The Suffering of the Five Aggregates
This is the most subtle and difficult to understand form of suffering. The five aggregates are the basic elements of perception: form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. When these aggregates are not in balance, it leads to a sense of emptiness, restlessness and frustration. It is often described as a sense of having great ambitions or talents, but not being able to use them, or to feel like a flower wasted on a pile of dung. It is a kind of suffering where you know what it is but you are not able to express it clearly.
In addition to these, Buddhist scriptures describe eighteen types of suffering, one hundred and eight types of suffering, and even countless forms of suffering. As the “Avatamsaka Sutra” states: “If karmic hindrances had a form, even the vastness of space would not be enough to contain them, and sentient beings, due to their karmic obstructions, will be subject to suffering for endless lifetimes.” The summary of life from the Buddhist perspective is “All beings experience suffering,” which is why they are devoted to charity and helping those in need. Their greatest wish is to escape from suffering. Here, Buddhist teachings simply describe the types of suffering, without addressing the origin of suffering, which is a topic to be discussed elsewhere.
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